Science
These lava lakes drained catastrophically—and scientists caught it in action – National Geographic
When Yves Moussallam trekked around Vanuatu’s Ambrym volcano in the winter of 2018, the ground was blanketed in green, and five incandescent lakes of molten rock burbled in the volcano’s caldera. Just two weeks later, though, he found himself in a landscape devoid of color. Gray ash coated each rock and crevice, and the lakes sat empty, their lava vanished like water swirled down a drain.
“It looked like everything was in black-and-white,” says Moussallam, a volcanologist at Columbia University who is also associated with France’s Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans. “The whole caldera area had completely changed.”
This transformation came in the wake of an extraordinary eruption that surprised scientists with its progression. While some of the lava spurted up from nearby cracks, the vast majority moved underground—a slug of magma big enough to fill 160,000 Olympic swimming pools. As the team reports in Scientific Reports, the process cracked the earth, sending coasts soaring into the air, and brought lava burbling up onto the ocean floor.
“It’s kind of a negative eruption, in a way,” says volcanologist Clive Oppenheimer of the University of Cambridge, who was not on the study team. “It’s not stuff coming out of the ground, it’s the magma migrating beneath the ground.”
Lava roils in one of Ambrym’s lakes before the 2018 eruption. Lava lakes can act like windows to the deep, giving clues to what’s happening deep beneath the surface.
Photograph by Yves Moussallam
The new study provides a rare and detailed portrait of Ambrym’s activity above and below, which can help geologists unravel the myriad processes that contribute to volcanic activity.
“As volcanologists, we’re always trying to understanding what’s going on kilometers beneath our feet, and that can be difficult because we don’t have direct access to the magmatic reservoirs,” says study coauthor Tara Shreve, a Ph.D. candidate at the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris. But the new study combines an array of clues to better understand the events conspiring deep underground, providing important details about Ambrym’s volcanic capabilities—and the variety of hazards such eruptions can present.
“It’s not like a lab science, where you can go and do the same experiment over and over and over again,” says Emily Montgomery-Brown, a geodesist at U.S. Geological Survey’s California Volcano Observatory who was not part of the study team. “We learn so much from every single eruption.”
A chance sighting
Moussallam initially ventured to Ambrym as part of a study analyzing the prodigious gasses puffing from volcanoes across the Vanuatu arc, a project funded by the National Geographic Society. They monitored gasses at three of Ambrym’s lava lakes before heading on their way. Two weeks later, they were prepping for their flight back home from Vanuatu’s capital city, Port Vila, when they got the news: Ambrym was erupting.
The team caught a helicopter back to the island and gaped at the difference. The molten lakes had disappeared. A lava flow cooled in the distance. Nearby trees crackled with flames. Connecting the dots, they at first assumed that magma had burst to the surface, draining the system.
“We thought that was the story,” Moussallam says. But, as they later discovered, the eruption was still playing out deep under their feet.
Intense earthquakes began rocking the island, and hefty fractures cut through the ground, forming steps in the landscape. In the coastal village of Pamal, eight miles from the caldera’s rim, roads were cleaved in two and houses were thrust feet into the air. The ground split under one building, leaving part of the structure hanging in mid-air.
“Clearly something was still going on,” Moussallam says. “It was really surprising it was so far away from where the eruption had begun.”
Pairing satellite analyses with on-the-ground observations, the team later learned that this was all part of a multi-day saga, as 14 billion cubic feet of magma shifted eastward, squeezing through deep cracks under the island for more than 10 miles.
This sudden addition of subsurface material shoved the coasts upward some six and a half feet, exposing a vast expanse of coral and red algae to deadly sunlight, says Géoazur’s Bernard Pelletier, a study coauthor who surveyed the coasts post-eruption. The loss was also felt at the volcano’s gaping summit caldera, which sunk by roughly eight feet.
On December 18, four days after the eruption began, volcanic pumice washed up on the island’s eastern shore—likely the result of magma finally oozing out from the subsurface into coastal waters.
Peering inside Earth
This type of draining through deep fissures in the ground, known as rift zone volcanism, is not unheard of, but Ambrym is an unlikely candidate.
Rift zone volcanism is most common in places where tectonic plates are separating, and extension in the crust pulls the land apart. Take, for example, the deep fissures found in Iceland’s volcanoes, which frequently line up with the pair of tectonic plates separating beneath the island country. Rift volcanism is also responsible for much activity at Kilauea which, along with the underlying flanks of Mauna Loa, is slowly sliding into the sea, Montgomery-Brown explains.
Volcanoes 101
About 1,500 active volcanoes can be found around the world. Learn about the major types of volcanoes, the geological process behind eruptions, and where the most destructive volcanic eruption ever witnessed occurred.
By contrast, Vanuatu sits near the tectonic collision zone between the Pacific and Indo-Australian plates, which compresses the region. However, the latest analysis suggests that Vanuatu’s pressure-packed position isn’t a problem. The rift that drained the magma is oriented so that the two sides separate in the direction of least compression, allowing the fracture to inflate “like a whoopee cushion,” Montgomery-Brown says. The team’s modeling suggests that the pocket of magma inside the rift likely bulged more than 13 feet across in some spots.
One lingering curiosity is what happened to the volcano’s gas, says Philipson Bani, a volcanologist at France’s Institute of Research for Development who was not on the study team. Ambrym has been one of the greatest natural emitters of carbon dioxide and other volcanic gasses around the world for many years. How it maintained such activity remains a mystery, he says. Then the eruption happened and, almost overnight, the gaseous factory seemed to turn off.
“How can you just shut off the pipe?” Bani says. “On Ambrym, we have more and more and more gas in the past, and then boom. It stops.”
Magmatic budgets
Still more clues to Ambrym’s eruption may continue to emerge, Moussallam notes. He’s currently looking into the chemistry of the lavas, which seem to be of at least two different compositions, likely originating from separate reservoirs. While more research is required to confirm the find, it hints that the eruption’s ignition spark might have been the formation of a new connection between the pair of reservoirs.
Detailed analyses of volcanic systems, like this latest Ambrym paper, are important in understanding the mechanics of volcanic eruptions. Such work might even help give clues to a volcano’s magmatic budget, revealing how much molten rock might be available for future eruptions, Mongomery-Brown says.
Just months before Ambrym drained, Kilauea’s lava lakes in Hawaii were making their own fiery exit from deep cracks on the volcano’s flanks. But Montgomery-Brown and her colleagues recently found that Kilauea’s extensive eruption and the collapse of its summit crater came from the release of a mere 11 to 33 percent of its shallow magma reservoir. The find sparked many questions, including why the eruption stopped at all.
In these ways, both eruptions provide a vital look into the dynamic and varied ways volcanoes work, says Matthew Patrick, a geologist with the United States Geological Survey’s Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, who was not involved with the new study.
“Now, for both volcanoes we’re in this recovery phase,” he says, “and the big question is, What’s next?”
Science
April 20: Why this Indigenous researcher thinks we can do science differently and more… – CBC.ca
Quirks and Quarks54:00Why this Indigenous researcher thinks we can do science differently, and more…
On this episode of Quirks & Quarks with Bob McDonald:
This researcher wants a new particle accelerator to use before she’s dead
Quirks and Quarks9:05This researcher wants a new particle accelerator to use before she’s dead
Physicists exploring the nature of reality need ever more capable particle colliders, so they’re exploring a successor to the Large Hadron Collider in Europe. But that new machine is at least decades away. Tova Holmes, an assistant professor at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, is one of the physicists calling for a different kind of collider that can come online before the end of her career – or her life. This device would use a particle not typically used in particle accelerators: the muon.
Is venting the best way to deal with anger? The scientist says chill out.
Quirks and Quarks6:51Is venting the best way to deal with anger? The scientist says chill out
It turns out that acting out your anger might not be the best way to get rid of it. Sophie Kjaervik, a researcher at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, Va., analyzed 154 studies of the different ways to deal with anger. Her results, published in the journal Clinical Psychology Review, suggest that techniques that reduce your heart rate and calm your mind are more effective than blowing off steam.
High intensity wildfires may release toxic forms of metals
Quirks and Quarks8:37High intensity wildfires may release toxic forms of metals
Wildfire smoke might be more dangerous than you think. A recent study in the journal Nature Communications found that when wildfires pass over soils or rocks rich in a normally harmless metal called chromium, it is transformed into a toxic form. The hotter and more intense the wildfire is, the more of this metal becomes toxic. Scott Fendorf, an Earth system science professor at Stanford University, said this study shows we should factor in the type of geology wildfires pass over to provide more targeted air quality warnings about smoke risks.
AI might help solve the problem of runaway conspiracy theories
Quirks and Quarks7:35AI might help solve the problem of runaway conspiracy theories
Conspiracy theories seem to have multiplied in the internet era and so far, we haven’t had much luck in debunking these beliefs. The preliminary findings of a new study on PsyArXiv, a site for psychology studies that have yet to be peer-reviewed, suggests that artificial intelligence may have more success. Thomas Costello, a postdoctoral psychology researcher at MIT was the lead author on this study, and said their findings can provide a window into how to better debunk conspiracy beliefs.
An Indigenous scientist explores the medicine the Earth needs
Quirks and Quarks19:12An Indigenous ecologist on why we need to stop and listen to save the planet
Earth day is April 22. And Earth is not in great shape to celebrate the day. Overheated, overpopulated, overexploited – we’re not being particularly careful with our planet. We talk to Indigenous ecologist Jennifer Grenz of the University of British Columbia about her new book, which is part memoir, part prescription for the medicine our planet needs – a compound of science and traditional wisdom. Her book is Medicine Wheel for the Planet: A journey toward personal and ecological healing.
READ MORE: An Indigenous ecologist on why we need to stop and listen to save the planet
In a remarkable development, NASA has given the green light to the Dragonfly mission, a revolutionary rotorcraft designed to investigate the complex chemistry of Saturn‘s moon Titan.
This confirmation allows the mission to proceed with the final design, construction, and testing of the spacecraft and its scientific instruments.
Deciphering the prebiotic chemistry on Titan
The Dragonfly mission, led by Dr. Melissa Trainer of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, will carry a cutting-edge instrument called the Dragonfly Mass Spectrometer (DraMS).
This powerful tool will help scientists delve into the intricate chemistry at work on Titan, potentially shedding light on the chemical processes that led to the emergence of life on Earth, known as prebiotic chemistry.
“We want to know if the type of chemistry that could be important for early pre-biochemical systems on Earth is taking place on Titan,” explains Dr. Trainer, a planetary scientist and astrobiologist specializing in Titan.
Titan: Dragonfly’s target
Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, is shrouded in a dense nitrogen-rich atmosphere, bears a striking resemblance to Earth in many ways. With a diameter of 5,150 kilometers, Titan is the second-largest moon in our solar system, surpassed only by Jupiter’s Ganymede.
Dense atmosphere and unique climate
One of Titan’s most distinctive features is its thick atmosphere, which is composed primarily of nitrogen and methane. This dense atmosphere creates a surface pressure 1.5 times higher than Earth’s, making it the only moon in our solar system with a substantial atmosphere.
The presence of methane in Titan’s atmosphere leads to a fascinating hydrological cycle, similar to Earth’s water cycle, but with methane as the primary liquid.
Titan’s surface is dotted with numerous lakes and seas of liquid hydrocarbons, predominantly methane and ethane. These liquid bodies, some of which are larger than the Great Lakes on Earth, are the result of Titan’s unique climate and atmospheric conditions.
The Cassini mission, which explored the Saturn system from 2004 to 2017, provided stunning images and data of these extraterrestrial lakes and seas.
Dragonfly mission to search Titan for prebiotic chemistry and life
The complex chemistry occurring on Titan’s surface and in its atmosphere has drawn significant attention from astrobiologists.
With its abundant organic compounds and the presence of liquid methane, Titan is considered a prime candidate for studying prebiotic chemistry and the potential for life to emerge in environments different from Earth.
Beneath Titan’s icy crust lies another intriguing feature: a global subsurface ocean of liquid water and ammonia. This ocean, which is believed to be salty and have a high pH, may potentially host microbial life.
The presence of this subsurface ocean, along with the unique chemistry on Titan’s surface, makes this moon a fascinating target for future exploration and scientific research.
Pushing the boundaries of rotorcraft exploration
Nicky Fox, associate administrator of the Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters, emphasized the significance of the Dragonfly mission, stating, “Exploring Titan will push the boundaries of what we can do with rotorcraft outside of Earth.”
Titan’s unique characteristics, including its abundant complex carbon-rich chemistry, interior ocean, and past presence of liquid water on the surface, make it an ideal destination for studying prebiotic chemical processes and the potential habitability of an extraterrestrial environment.
Innovative design and cutting-edge technology
The Dragonfly robotic rotorcraft will leverage Titan’s low gravity and dense atmosphere to fly between different points of interest on the moon’s surface, spanning several miles apart.
This innovative approach allows the entire suite of instruments to be relocated to new sites once the previous one has been thoroughly explored, providing access to samples from diverse geological environments.
DraMS, developed by the same team responsible for the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument suite aboard the Curiosity rover, will analyze surface samples using techniques tested on Mars.
Dr. Trainer emphasized the benefits of this heritage, stating, “This design has given us an instrument that’s very flexible, that can adapt to the different types of surface samples.”
Dragonfly mission challenges and funding
The Dragonfly mission successfully passed its Preliminary Design Review in early 2023. However, due to funding constraints, the mission was asked to develop an updated budget and schedule.
The revised plan, presented and conditionally approved in November 2023, hinged on the outcome of the fiscal year 2025 budget process.
With the release of the president’s fiscal year 2025 budget request, Dragonfly is now confirmed with a total lifecycle cost of $3.35 billion and a launch date set for July 2028.
This reflects a cost increase of approximately two times the initially proposed cost and a delay of more than two years from the original selection in 2019.
Despite the challenges posed by funding constraints, the COVID-19 pandemic, supply chain issues, and an in-depth design iteration, NASA remains committed to the Dragonfly mission.
Additional funding has been provided for a heavy-lift launch vehicle to shorten the mission’s cruise phase and compensate for the delayed arrival at Titan.
Rigorous testing and validation
To ensure the success of the Dragonfly mission, researchers on Earth have conducted extensive testing and validation of the designs and models for the nuclear-powered, car-sized drone.
The mission team has carried out test campaigns at NASA’s Langley Research Center, utilizing the Subsonic Tunnel and the Transonic Dynamics Tunnel (TDT) to validate computational fluid dynamics models and gather data under simulated Titan atmospheric conditions.
Ken Hibbard, Dragonfly mission systems engineer at APL, emphasized the importance of these tests, stating, “All of these tests feed into our Dragonfly Titan simulations and performance predictions.”
As the Dragonfly mission progresses, it marks a new era of exploration and scientific discovery. Dr. Trainer expressed her excitement, saying, “Dragonfly is a spectacular science mission with broad community interest, and we are excited to take the next steps on this mission.”
Turning science fiction into fact with the Dragonfly mission
In summary, the Dragonfly mission embodies the essence of human curiosity and the relentless pursuit of knowledge. As NASA prepares to send this revolutionary rotorcraft to the alien world of Titan, we stand on the brink of a new era of exploration and discovery.
With its innovative design, cutting-edge technology, and the unwavering dedication of the mission team, Dragonfly will unlock the secrets of prebiotic chemistry and shed light on the potential for life beyond Earth.
As we eagerly await the launch of this titanic mission, we can only imagine the wonders that await us on Saturn’s enigmatic moon. The Dragonfly mission is a testament to the indomitable human spirit and our boundless capacity to push the frontiers of knowledge.
In the words of Ken Hibbard, “With Dragonfly, we’re turning science fiction into exploration fact,” and that fact will undoubtedly inspire generations to come.
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Science
Marine plankton could act as alert in mass extinction event: UVic researcher – Langley Advance Times
A University of Victoria micropaleontologist found that marine plankton may act as an early alert system before a mass extinction occurs.
With help from collaborators at the University of Bristol and Harvard, Andy Fraass’ newest paper in the Nature journal shows that after an analysis of fossil records showed that plankton community structures change before a mass extinction event.
“One of the major findings of the paper was how communities respond to climate events in the past depends on the previous climate,” Fraass said in a news release. “That means that we need to spend a lot more effort understanding recent communities, prior to industrialization. We need to work out what community structure looked like before human-caused climate change, and what has happened since, to do a better job at predicting what will happen in the future.”
According to the release, the fossil record is the most complete and extensive archive of biological changes available to science and by applying advanced computational analyses to the archive, researchers were able to detail the global community structure of the oceans dating back millions of years.
A key finding of the study was that during the “early eocene climatic optimum,” a geological era with sustained high global temperatures equivalent to today’s worst case global warming scenarios, marine plankton communities moved to higher latitudes and only the most specialized plankton remained near the equator, suggesting that the tropical temperatures prevented higher amounts of biodiversity.
“Considering that three billion people live in the tropics, the lack of biodiversity at higher temperatures is not great news,” paper co-leader Adam Woodhouse said in the release.
Next, the team plans to apply similar research methods to other marine plankton groups.
Read More: Global study, UVic researcher analyze how mammals responded during pandemic
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