The issue of slavery in Canada has often been overlooked by historians and society. Substantive recognition of this dark chapter did not begin until the 1960s. Slavery was actively practiced in New France, in both the St. Lawrence Valley and Louisiana, affecting the lives of thousands of men, women, and children of Aboriginal and African descent over nearly two centuries.
Slavery was introduced to New France in stages. The first recorded slave, a young boy from Madagascar or Guinea, arrived with the Kirke brothers in 1629. Before leaving Quebec three years later, they sold him for 50 écus. The boy, named Olivier Le Jeune by his new master Guillaume Couillard, was described as Couillard’s “domestique” (servant) in the record of his burial in 1654, suggesting he might have been manumitted.
Black slaves began arriving in Canada towards the end of the 17th century. Despite the colonial officials’ repeated desires to import African slaves, no slave ship ever reached the St. Lawrence Valley. Black slaves arrived from neighbouring British colonies, smuggled or taken as war captives, or brought back by Canadian merchants from business trips to the south, in Louisiana or the French Caribbean.
Contrary to common perception, the majority of slaves in Canada were of Aboriginal, not African, origin. Native populations had a tradition of subjugating war captives before the arrival of the French. This practice acquired new meanings and proportions with Western expansion. From the 1670s, the French began receiving captives from their Aboriginal partners during commercial and diplomatic exchanges. The Illinois were notorious for their raids against southeastern nations, from which they brought back captives. By the early 18th century, the practice of buying and selling these captives as merchandise was established.
The ethnic origin of Aboriginal slaves is sometimes specified in period documents. They included Foxes and Sioux from the western Great Lakes, Inuit from Labrador, Chickasaws from the Mississippi Valley, Apaches from the American southeast, and especially “Panis.” The term “Panis” was initially used to refer to the Pawnees, a nation in the Missouri River basin heavily targeted by the allies of the French. However, it quickly became a generic term for any Aboriginal slave, regardless of their actual origin.
In contrast, in Louisiana, Aboriginal slaves were harder to acquire and retain in bondage. Colonists, particularly planters, preferred African slaves, whom they judged more suited for working in indigo and tobacco fields. The African slave trade in Louisiana began in 1719.
Slavery in New France was regulated by various laws and customs. Masters had almost absolute control over their slaves, who had few legal protections. Slaves were considered property and could be bought, sold, and inherited. The Code Noir, a set of laws governing the treatment of slaves, was applied to a limited extent in New France, providing some guidelines for their treatment but often ignored in practice.
The slave population in New France was relatively small compared to other parts of the Americas. Estimates suggest that there were about 4,200 slaves in Canada by the end of the 18th century, with Aboriginal slaves outnumbering African slaves. Slave ownership was concentrated among the wealthy elite, including government officials, merchants, and clergy. Many slaves worked as domestic servants, laborers, or skilled craftsmen.
Slaves in Canada lived and worked under harsh conditions. They were often subjected to physical punishment, hard labor, and poor living conditions. Their diet was basic, and medical care was minimal. Despite these hardships, some slaves formed close relationships with their masters and fellow slaves, creating a sense of community and resilience.
The relationship between slaves and their masters varied. Some masters treated their slaves with a degree of humanity, providing for their basic needs and allowing them some autonomy. Others were brutal, inflicting severe punishments and exploiting their labor. Slaves could be subjected to sexual abuse, and their marriages and family bonds were often not recognized or respected.
Manumission, or the freeing of slaves, was relatively rare in Canada. Some slaves were able to buy their freedom or were freed by their masters for various reasons, including acts of loyalty or religious conversion. Free Black and Aboriginal individuals often faced significant discrimination and limited opportunities for economic advancement.
The abolition of slavery in Canada was a gradual process. The British Empire’s Abolition of the Slave Trade Act in 1807 ended the transatlantic slave trade, but it was not until the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 that slavery was officially abolished throughout the British Empire, including Canada. By that time, the institution had already been in decline due to economic changes and growing anti-slavery sentiment.
The history of slavery in Canada is a complex and often overlooked chapter in the nation’s past. It involved the exploitation and suffering of thousands of Aboriginal and African individuals. Recognizing this history is essential for understanding the broader context of racial relations and social justice in Canada today.
Suggested Readings
- “The Hanging of Angélique: The Untold Story of Canadian Slavery and the Burning of Old Montreal” by Afua Cooper
- “Slavery and the Evolution of the Atlantic World” by William A. Green
- “Black Enslavement in Canada” by Robin Winks
